How Kublai Khan Finished What Genghis Khan Started

Southern China's Song Dynasty eluded Genghis Khan's grasp during his lifetime. At his death, Genghis passed to his descendants the yet-unrealized dream of conquering the Song Dynasty and his desire to expand the already mighty Mongolian Empire (per National Geographic). While many of the Great Khans after Genghis successfully expanded the empire, the Song Dynasty remained unattainable. Roughly 50 years after Genghis' death, his grandson Kublai Khan finally added south China and the Song Dynasty to the Mongolian Empire's control (via NSCWPS). While still violent in battle and at times unjust in subjugation, Kublai's approach favored religious tolerance and integration rather than eliminating Chinese culture.

Born in 1215, Kublai Khan's unique approach to his grandfather's empire-building business began with his education overseen by his mother (per National Geographic). Married to Ghenghis Kahn's son Tolui, Kublai's mother, Sorkhotani Beki, came from a powerful Mongolian family and was a princess in her own right (via History). Sorkhotani Beki oversaw Khan's education, influenced by Chinese and Mongolian culture. He learned Mongolian hunting and war tactics and Chinese philosophy and customs (via Emory Journal of Asian Studies). His mother ensured his instructors and lessons were diverse, and his years of study introduced Kublai to the many religions of his family's empire, including Buddhism, Taoism, and Islam, writes National Geographic. This education positioned him as a formidable opponent to China yet also one with a deep knowledge of Chinese customs and tradition.

In 1251, Kublai Kahn's brother Möngke ascended to the role of Great Khan. Given Kublai's reputation as a successful leader, Möngke tasked Kublai with overseeing Northern China (per (National Geographic). Möngke hadn't forgotten his grandfather's hope for a Mongolian Empire that included Southern China. As a part of Möngke's efforts, he gave Kublai the task of overtaking the Yunnan region of China, which is in the southwest, near Laos and Myanmar (Burma), writes World History. Kublai took his first military assignment seriously, preparing for a year before setting out on the three-year campaign. His preparation paid off, and his first military assignment was a success, explains History.

After his win in the south, Kublai became responsible for a much larger territory. Because of that, he saw the need to create a new capital for the expansive region under his rule. He understood that building a grand capital would show a dedication to his new people, especially if he went about it by their customs. So, he used the Chinese practice of feng shui to select the precise location of his capital, says Dr. William Romain in Time and Mind (via Research Gate). Strategically, he set up the stronghold in the north of China within reach of the Mongolian grasslands and Chinese farmlands. He named the area Shang-tu, which means "upper capital," per History. Later, Europeans called the city Xanadu.

After Kublai Kahn's victory against Ariq Boke, he set forth a plan to unite all of China under the rule of the Mongolian Empire and finally realize Genghis Khan's dream (via National Geographic). While the next several years fighting the Song were grueling, the Chinese underestimation of the Mongolians aided Kublai's efforts. The Song Dynasty elites considered the Mongolians uncivilized outsiders, explains BBC. According to Kublai Khan biographer John Man, "For the Song, it would been absolutely inconceivable that the Mongols could take over the whole of China." However, the Mongolians benefitted from the decades of knowledge cultivated from their ever-spreading empire, including the terrifying war tactics learned from Kublai's grandfather Genghis Khan, says Biography.

Additionally, Kublai used technologies and innovations learned from the distant cultures the Mongolians had encountered in their conquests. During the multi-year-long slog to defeat the fortified city of Xianyang — often equated to the Trojan War — Kublai achieved victory by using European-style catapults acquired from the empire's far reaches ​(per "The Mongol Empire"). With Xianyang taken, the Mongols moved into Southeast China. By 1279, Kublai Kahn and his empire finally ruled over all of China (via National Geographic). The Song leadership was surprised that the so-called barbarians from the northern grasslands actually took over. The emperor, a child at the time, died by suicide as a result, as was the case with many other high-ranking Song Dynasty members (via BBC).

Though he used Chinese tradition as a leadership strategy, Kublai Khan's China was rife with social inequality, and he did not try to integrate into Chinese culture fully. Instead, the elite Mongolian leaders maintained their Mongolian identity, leading to a divide between the Mongolian elite and the Chinese lower classes (via History). The Mongolian upper classes thrived, while the Chinese bore the brunt of the labor. Chinese workers supported the empire through heavy taxes, and Kublai created a class threshold that Chinese people couldn't overtake, no matter their skill, causing resentment (per National Geographic). Furthermore, the Mongolian officials felt threatened by how Kublai embraced the Chinese culture openly. They grew envious of how Kublai put outsiders and international experts — including the Venetian Marco Polo — in high government positions. These tensions, coupled with severe losses in Japan and Java, weakened Kublai's empire, reports BBC.

Distraught by the death of his son and his wife, Kublai fell into a depression in late life. His health declined, as did the strength of his empire. After his death at 79 years old in 1294, Kublai joined his grandfather in Mongolia's Great Khan burial site. The generations of Great Khans who had sought to overtake China lay underground. By 1368, the Mongolian empire had fractured, and the Ming Dynasty replaced Kublai's Yüan Dynasty. Though Genghis Khan's dream lay buried, Great Khan's reign forever changed China.